Plato's Myths

Socrates and the Daimonion


Eugène Delacroix, Socrates and his Daemon (1838), Library, Palais Bourbon, Paris

 

SOCRATES had a special sense — which he called the daimonion (δαιμόνιον) — that infallibly warned and prevented him from doing something wrong or harmful to himself. This is also sometimes called Socrates' sign and, mistakenly, his daimon or daemon. The word daimonion is notoriously difficult to define. In English, rough translations might be 'the spiritual' or 'the supernatural.' Cicero simply translated it as divinum aliquid — a 'divine something.'

The daimonion sometimes occurred as a voice only Socrates heard, and other times as ordinary events like someone's unexpected sneeze.

All ancient sources agree that the daimonion warned Socrates not to act. Some sources suggest it also sometimes prompted him to positive action.

Again, sources disagree on whether the daimonion only protected Socrates alone, or sometimes issued warnings to prevent harmful actions of friends or others.

Everything about the phenomenon is an enigma, and 2400 years later we're no closer to understanding it than were Socrates' own students. Recent scholarship (e.g., Vlastos, 1991; McPherran, 1996) has focused somewhat narrowly on resolving the apparent contradiction that Socrates, considered in modern centuries as the paragon of objective rational thought, heeded an unexplained sense that gave no logical basis for its promptings. But an equally valid perspective is the religious one: that Socrates, like a prophet, was a man who learned the secret of what it means to walk by faith (Bussanich, 2009).

It's sometimes said that Socrates' daimonion was 'merely' human conscience. But that only defines one perplexing term with another. For, in truth, we have little scientific understanding of what conscience is; and ordinary experience alone is enough to suggest that it encompasses different psychological processes and experiences.

Was the daimonion an aberration, a hallucination, an eccentricity — as some authors have suggested (e.g., Karpas, 1915; Muramoto & Englert, 2006)? Or does it illustrate for us a peculiar problem in the integration of the conscious and unconscious mind in making decisions? For instance, could this relate to recent suggestions that human beings have two parallel minds — a verbal, analytical 'left brain,' and a nonverbal, intuitive, unconscious 'right brain' (Jaynes, 1976; McGilchrist, 2009).

If unconscious cognitive processes are involved, are these a biological unconscious? Gut instinct? Or a higher unconscious that involves potentially supra-rational mental abilities?

In some of his myths, Plato, our chief source of information (along with Xenophon) on the daimonion, also mentioned a tutelary daimon (something like a guardian angel) that accompanies human souls (Timaeus 90c–e, Phaedo 107d–108c, Republic 10.617e, 10.620d–e). However Plato does not associate this daimon with Socrates in particular or directly imply it is the source of Socrates' special sense. While the two words are etymologically related, daimonion conveys a more general sense than that associated with daimones, which are entities. The difference is analogous to the distinction we might in English make between "the spiritual" and a "spirit."

Nevertheless it's interesting to note a trend over time, beginning with Middle Platonist commentators (Plutarch, Apuleius and Maximus of Tyre) and continuing with Neoplatonists to conflate the daimonion and the personal daimon.

To return to psychology, there are practical reasons for us today to study Socrates' daimonion. As each one may readily observe, in the course of any day we frequently experience inner 'voices' of doubt, caution and hesitation — what the modern Platonist, Paul Elmer More called the "inner check." This presents us with a task of discernment — often difficult: should we act as originally planned, or heed the voice of warning. And on what basis do we decide?

It therefore benefits us to learn about and reflect on Socrates daimonion — partly so that we may be more adept at monitoring similar activities within our own psyche. For that purpose of individual 'interior science' a theoretical discussion is not nearly so helpful as raw data. That is what the present aims to supply, by listing excerpts from ancient philosophical literature on the subject. These are supplied, grouped by authors, oldest to most recent. To further aid personal study, a bibliography of main ancient and modern sources is follows.

Contents

    Plato
    Xenophon
    Cicero
    Plutarch
    Apuleius
    Maximus of Tyre
    Neoplatonism
    Bibliography


Plato

Apology 31c-d

At his trial, Socrates explains that he avoided engaging in politics because the daimonion warned him against it.

    Perhaps it may seem strange that I go about and interfere in other people's affairs to give this advice in private, but do not venture to come before your assembly and advise the state. But the reason for this, as you have heard me say at many times and places, is that something divine [θεῖόν τι καὶ δαιμόνιον] comes to me, the very thing which Meletus ridiculed in his indictment. I have had this from my childhood; it is a sort of voice [φωνή] that comes to me, and when it comes it always holds me back from what I am thinking of doing, but never urges me forward. This it is which opposes my engaging in politics. And I think this opposition is a very good thing; for you may be quite sure, men of Athens, that if I had undertaken to go into politics, I should have been put to death long ago and should have done no good to you or to myself. (tr. Fowler)

Apology 40a-c, 41c-d

Here Socrates concludes he should attend his trial without fear because the daimonion did not warn him against it.

    [40a-c]
    I feel that you are my friends, and I wish to show you the meaning of this which has now happened to me. For, judges — and in calling you judges I give you your right name — a wonderful thing has happened to me. For hitherto the customary prophetic monitor [μαντικὴ ἡ τοῦ δαιμονίου] always spoke to me very frequently and opposed me even in very small matters, if I was going to do anything I should not; but now, as you yourselves see, this thing which might be thought, and is generally considered, the greatest of evils has come upon me; but the divine sign [τοῦ θεοῦ σημεῖον; θεοῦ σημεῖον] did not oppose me either when I left my home in the morning, or when I came here to the court, or at any point of my speech, when I was going to say anything; and yet on other occasions it stopped me at many points in the midst of a speech; but now, in this affair, it has not opposed me in anything I was doing or saying. What then do I suppose is the reason? I will tell you. This which has happened to me is doubtless a good thing, and those of us who think death is an evil must be mistaken. A convincing proof of this been given me; for the accustomed sign [μοι τὸ εἰωθὸς σημεῖον; εἰωθὸς σημεῖον] would surely have opposed me if I had not been going to meet with something good. (tr. Fowler)

    [41c-d]
    But you also, judges, must regard death hopefully and must bear in mind this one truth, that no evil can come to a good man either in life or after death, and God does not neglect him. So, too, this which had come to me has not come by chance, but I see plainly that it was better for me to die now and be freed from troubles. That is the reason why the sign [τὸ σημεῖον] never interfered with me.... (tr. Fowler)

Phaedrus 242b-d

Socrates thought he heard a voice telling him to remain and alter a speech he just made
    Socrates: My good friend [i.e., Phaedrus], when I was about to cross the stream, the spirit and the sign [τὸ δαιμόνιόν τε καὶ τὸ εἰωθὸς σημεῖόν; δαιμόνιόν, σημεῖόν] that usually comes to me came — it always holds me back from something I am about to do — and I thought I heard a voice [φωνὴν] from it which forbade my going away before clearing my conscience, as if I had committed some sin against deity. Now I am a seer [μάντις], not a very good one, but, as the bad writers say, good enough for my own purposes; so now I understand my error. How prophetic [μαντικόν] the soul is, my friend! For all along, while I was speaking my discourse, something troubled me, and as Ibycus says, “I was distressed lest I be buying honor among men by sinning against the gods.” [Ibycus Frag. 24, Bergk.] But now I have seen my error.

    Phaedrus: What do you mean?

    Socrates: Phaedrus, a dreadful speech it was, a dreadful speech, the one you brought with you, and the one you made me speak.

    Phaedrus: How so?

    Socrates: It was foolish, and somewhat impious. What could be more dreadful than that? (tr. Fowler)

Republic 6.496c

Socrates here argues that a philosopher would have no interest in politics, but would quietly mind his own affairs. Philosophers come to this understanding in different ways, including exile, living in a small, parochial town — or, in Socrates case, his divine sign held him back.
    “There is a very small remnant, then, Adeimantus,” I said, “of those who consort worthily with philosophy, some well-born and well-bred nature, it may be, held in check by exile, and so in the absence of corrupters remaining true to philosophy, as its quality bids, or it may happen that a great soul born in a little town scorns and disregards its parochial affairs; and a small group perhaps might by natural affinity be drawn to it from other arts which they justly disdain; and the bridle of our companion Theages also might operate as a restraint. For in the case of Theages all other conditions were at hand ....

    My own case, the divine sign [τὸ δαιμόνιον σημεῖον], is hardly worth mentioning — for I suppose it has happened to few or none before me. And those who have been of this little company [i.e., philosophers] and have tasted the sweetness and blessedness of this possession [philosophy] and who have also come to understand the madness of the multitude sufficiently and have seen that there is nothing, if I may say so, sound or right in any present politics, and that there is no ally with whose aid the champion of justice could escape destruction, but that he would be as a man who has fallen among wild beasts, unwilling to share their misdeeds and unable to hold out singly against the savagery of all, and that he would thus, before he could in any way benefit his friends or the state come to an untimely end without doing any good to himself or others,—for all these reasons I say the philosopher remains quiet, minds his own affair... (tr. Shorey)

Theaetetus 150e–151a

Socrates' daimonion forbids him to take back cocky students who left his tutelage prematurely and fell into error.

    ... many before now, being ignorant of this fact and thinking that they were themselves the cause of their success, but despising me, have gone away from me sooner than they ought, whether of their own accord or because others persuaded them to do so. Then, after they have gone away, they have miscarried thenceforth on account of evil companionship, and the offspring which they had brought forth through my assistance they have reared so badly that they have lost it; they have considered impostures and images of more importance than the truth, and at last it was evident to themselves, as well as to others, that they were ignorant. One of these was Aristeides, the son of Lysimachus, and there are very many more. When such men come back and beg me, as they do, with wonderful eagerness to let them join me again, the spiritual monitor that comes to me [τὸ γιγνόμενόν μοι δαιμόνιον; δαιμόνιον] forbids me to associate with some of them, but allows me to converse with others, and these again make progress. (tr. Fowler)

Euthyphro 3b

    Socrates: Absurd things, my friend, at first hearing. For he says I am a maker of gods; and because I make new gods [θεῶν] and do not believe in the old ones, he indicted me for the sake of these old ones, as he says.

    Euthyphro: I understand, Socrates; it is because you say the divine monitor [τὸ δαιμόνιον] keeps coming to you. So he has brought the indictment against you for making innovations in religion, and he is going into court to slander you, knowing that slanders on such subjects are readily accepted by the people. Why, they even laugh at me and say I am crazy... (tr. Fowler)

Alcibiades I 105e–106a

Previously the daimonion prevented Socrates from teaching Alcibiades, but now no longer.

    Socrates: In your younger days, to be sure, before you had built such high hopes [1], the god [θεὸς], as I believe, prevented me from talking with you, in order that I might not waste my words: but now he has set me on; for now you will listen to me. (tr. Lamb)

    1. That is, Alcibidaes was too ambitious and headstrong.

Euthydemus 272e–273a

As Socrates is preparing to leave the gymnasium, the daimonion urges him to wait. Just then two prominent sophists, Euthydemus and Dionysodorus, enter — with whom Socrates is evidently destined to converse.

    By some providence I chanced to be sitting in the place where you saw me, in the undressing-room, alone, and was just intending to get up and go; but the moment I did so, there came my wonted spiritual sign [τὸ εἰωθὸς σημεῖον τὸ δαιμόνιον]. So I sat down again, and after a little while these two persons entered—Euthydemus and Dionysodorus—and accompanying them, quite a number, as it seemed to me, of their pupils.... (tr. Lamb)

Theages 128d–129e

    Socrates: No, good sir, the meaning of it escapes you; but I will tell it you. There is something spiritual [θείᾳ μοίρᾳ, δαιμόνιον] which, by a divine dispensation, has accompanied me from my childhood up. It is a voice [φωνή] that, when it occurs, always indicates to me a prohibition of something I may be about to do, but never urges me on to anything; and if one of my friends consults me and the voice [φωνή] occurs, the same thing happens: it prohibits, and does not allow him to act. And I will produce witnesses to convince you of these facts. You know our Charmides here, who has grown so handsome, the son of Glaucon: he once happened to be consulting me on his intention of training for the Nemean races, and he had no sooner begun to say that he intended to train than the voice occurred, and I tried to prevent him, saying—“Just as you were speaking my spirit-voice has occurred: no, you must not train.” “Perhaps,” said he, “it indicates to you that I shall not win; but even if I am not to win, at any rate the exercise I shall get in the meantime will do me good.” So saying, he went and trained; and so you may as well inquire of him as to the results he got from his training. Or if you like, ask Cleitomachus, brother of Timarchus, what Timarchus said to him when he was going straight to the prison to meet his death, he and Euathlus the racing runner, who had harbored Timarchus as a fugitive; for he will tell you that the words he spoke to him were these:

    Theages: What?

    Socrates: “Cleitomachus,” he said, “I tell you I am going to my death now, because I would not take Socrates' advice.” Now, why on earth did Timarchus say that? I will tell you. When Timarchus and Philemon, son of Philemonides, got up from the wine-party to kill Nicias, son of Heroscamandrus, those two alone had knowledge of the plot; and Timarchus, as he got up, said to me: “What say you, Socrates? Go on drinking, all of you; I have to get up and go somewhere, but I will join you a little later, if I get the chance.” Then occurred that voice of mine, [φωνή] and I said to him: “No, no, do not get up; for my accustomed spiritual sign [τὸ εἰωθὸς σημεῖον τὸ δαιμόνιον] has occurred to me.”

    So he stopped. Then after an interval of time he again started to go, and said: “Well, I am going, Socrates.” Again the voice occurred, [φωνή] and so again I constrained him to stop. The third time, wishing to give me the slip, he got up without saying another word to me; he gave me the slip by watching until my attention was turned elsewhere. Thus it was that he went right off and committed the deed which was the cause of his going then to his death. And hence it was that he spoke those words to his brother which I quoted to you just now, that he was going to his death because he had not taken my advice.

    And moreover, in regard to the Sicilian business, many will tell you what I said about the destruction of the army. As to bygones, you may hear from those who know: but there is an opportunity now of testing the worth of what the sign says. For as the handsome Sannio was setting out on campaign, the sign occurred to me, [οι τὸ σημεῖον] and he has gone now with Thrasyllus on an expedition bound for Ephesus and Ionia. I accordingly expect him to be either killed or brought very near it, and I have great fears for our force as a whole.

    Now I have told you all this, because this spiritual power that attends me [δύναμις αὕτη τοῦ δαιμονίου] also exerts itself to the full in my intercourse with those who spend their time with me. To many, indeed, it is adverse, and it is not possible for these to get any good by conversing with me, and I am therefore unable to spend my time in conversing with them. And there are many with whom it does not prohibit my intercourse, yet the intercourse does them no good. But those who are assisted in their intercourse by that spiritual power are the persons whom you have noticed; for they make rapid progress there and then. And of these, again, who make progress some find the benefit both solid and enduring; while there are many who, for as long a time as they are with me, make wonderful progress, but when they are parted from me relapse, and are no different from anybody else. This once befell Aristeides, son of Lysimachus, son of Aristeides. (tr. Lamb)

Xenophon

Memorabilia 1.1.1–5

According to Xenophon, Socrates sometimes advised friends based on the guidance of his daimonion.

    I have often wondered by what arguments those who drew up the indictment against Socrates could persuade the Athenians that his life was forfeit to the state. The indictment against him was to this effect: Socrates is guilty of rejecting the gods acknowledged by the state and of bringing in strange deities: he is also guilty of corrupting the youth.

    First then, that he rejected the gods acknowledged by the state — what evidence did they produce of that? He offered sacrifices constantly, and made no secret of it, now in his home, now at the altars of the state temples, and he made use of divination with as little secrecy. Indeed it had become notorious that Socrates claimed to be guided by ‘the deity’ [τὸ δαιμόνιον]: it was out of this claim, I think, that the charge of bringing in strange deities arose.

    He was no more bringing in anything strange than are other believers in divination, who rely on augury, oracles, coincidences and sacrifices. For these men's belief is not that the birds or the folk met by accident know what profits the inquirer, but that they are the instruments by which the gods make this known; and that was Socrates' belief too. Only, whereas most men say that the birds or the folk they meet dissuade or encourage them, Socrates said what he meant: for he said that the deity gave him a sign [δαιμόνιον γὰρ ἔφη σημαίνειν]. Many of his companions were counselled by him to do this or not to do that in accordance with the warnings of the deity [δαιμονίου προσημαίνοντος]: and those who followed his advice prospered, and those who rejected it had cause for regret.

    And yet who would not admit that he wished to appear neither a knave nor a fool to his companions? but he would have been thought both, had he proved to be mistaken when he alleged that his counsel was in accordance with divine revelation [προαγορεύων ὡς ὑπὸ θεοῦ]. Obviously, then, he would not have given the counsel if he had not been confident that what he said would come true. And who could have inspired him with that confidence but a god? And since he had confidence in the gods, how can he have disbelieved in the existence of the gods? (tr. Marchant)

Apology 12–13

Xenophon compares Socrates' daimonion with divination and oracles.

    As for introducing ‘new divinities,’ how could I be guilty of that merely in asserting that a voice of God is made manifest to me indicating my duty? Surely those who take their omens from the cries of birds and the utterances of men form their judgments on ‘voices.’ Will any one dispute either that thunder utters its ‘voice,’ or that it is an omen of the greatest moment? Does not the very priestess who sits on the tripod at Delphi divulge the god's will through a ‘voice’?

    But more than that, in regard to God's foreknowledge of the future and his forewarning thereof to whomsoever he will, these are the same terms, I assert, that all men use, and this is their belief. The only difference between them and me is that whereas they call the sources of their forewarning ‘birds,’ ‘utterances,’ ‘chance meetings,’ ‘prophets,’ I call mine a ‘divine’ thing;1 and I think that in using such a term I am speaking with more truth and deeper religious feeling than do those who ascribe the gods' power to birds. Now that I do not lie against God I have the following proof: I have revealed to many of my friends the counsels which God has given me, and in no instance has the event shown that I was mistaken.” (tr. Todd)

Cicero

De divinatione 1.54.122–123

    It is the purity of soul, no doubt, that explains that famous utterance which history attributes to Socrates and which his disciples in their books often represent him as repeating: "There is some divine influence" — δαιμόνιον, he called it — "which I always obey, though it never urges me on, but often holds me back." ) And it was the same Socrates—and what better authority can we quote? — who was consulted by Xenophon as to whether he should join Cyrus. Socrates, after stating what seemed to him the best thing to do, remarked: ' But my opinion is only that of a man. In matters of doubt and perplexity I advise that Apollo's oracle be consulted.' This oracle was always consulted by the Athenians in regard to the more serious public questions.

    It is also related of Socrates that one day he saw his friend Crito with a bandage on his eye. "What's the matter, Crito?" he inquired. "As I was walking in the country the branch of a tree, which had been bent, was released and struck me in the eye." "Of course," said Socrates, "for, after I had had divine warning, as usual, and tried to call you back, you did not heed."

    It is also related of him that after the unfortunate battle was fought at Delium under command of Laches, he was fleeing in company with his commander, when they came to a place where three roads met. Upon his refusal to take the road that the others had chosen he was asked the reason and replied: "The god prevents me." Those who fled by the other road fell in with the enemy's cavalry. Antipater has gathered a mass of remarkable premonitions received by Socrates [1], but I shall pass them by, for you know them and it is useless for me to recount them. (tr. Falconer)

    1. Perhaps Antipater of Tarsus (d. 130 BC), a Stoic philosopher with an interest in divination, dreams and the supernatural; or possibly Antipater of Tyre (fl. 1st century BC) another Stoic and Cicero's contemporary.

Plutarch

On Socrates' daimonion 580d–f

The swine incident

    Socrates ... happened to be making the ascent toward the Symbolon and the house of Andocides, putting some question to Euthyphron the while and sounding him out playfully. Suddenly he stopped short and fell silent, lost for a good time in thought; at last he turned back, taking the way through the street of the cabinetmakers, and called out to the friends who had already gone onward to return, saying that the sign [δαιμονίον] had come to him. Most turned back with him, I with the rest, clinging close to Euthyphron; but certain young fellows went straight ahead, imagining that they would discredit Socrates' sign, and drew along Charillus the flute-player, who had also come to Athens with me to visit Cebes. As they were walking along the street of the statuaries past the law-courts, they were met by a drove of swine, covered with mud and so numerous that they pressed against one another; and as there was nowhere to step aside, the swine ran into some and knocked them down, and befouled the rest. Charillus came home like the others, his legs and clothes covered with mud; so that we always mentioned Socrates' sign with laughter, at the same time marvelling that Heaven never deserted or neglected him. (tr. De Lacy & Einarson)

On Socrates' daimonion 581d–e

(1) fate of the Sicilian expedition foretold; (2) the retreat at Delium

    I also hear that Socrates foretold to some of his friends the loss of the Athenian forces in Sicily. And still earlier, when Pyrilampes, who had been wounded with a javelin and was taken prisoner by us in the pursuit at Delion, was told ... that Socrates had reached the coast with Alcibiades and Laches and come home safe, he often invoked the name of Socrates — and often those [names] of certain friends and members of his company who had ... been killed by our cavalry in their retreat from the battle, as they had (he said) disregarded Socrates' sign and taken a different way, not following where Socrates led. (tr. De Lacy & Einarson; slightly edited)

Apuleius

On the god of Socratis (De deo Socratis)

For an excellent summary of this work see Finamore (2014). The excerpt below comes from 16.155−156.
    There is also a higher and more august class of daemones, no less than these in number and much excelling them in importance, which are forever free of bodily bonds and fetters, and take care of fixed areas of authority. [...] Hence, in Plato’s view, it is daemones from this abundant loftier type which are assigned to individual humans as witnesses and guardians in the conduct of their lives; they are, he says, such as never to be visible as present to anyone, but are judges not only of all our actions but even of all our thoughts. [...]

    The consequence is that such a daemon participates in everything with close attention, inspecting everything and understanding everything, and dwelling in the inmost sanctum of the human mind in the function of consciousness [conscientiae] itself. This daemon I talk of is a personal guardian, an individual governor, an inspector in the household, a personal supervisor, an inner attorney, a continuous overseer, the one and only judge, an inseparable witness, a critic of the bad and commender of the good.

    If it is rightly acknowledged, recognized with attention, and served with reverence, just as it was served in justice and innocence by Socrates, it can provide a clear view forward when things are doubtful, warning in times of uncertainty, protection in peril, and aid in need; it is a being which can, by means of dreams, signs, or even perhaps by face-to-face encounter when the occasion demands, help you by sweeping away evil, promoting good, raising up lowliness, supporting weakness, elucidating obscurity, guiding success, and rectifying adversity. (tr. Harrison)

Maximus of Tyre

Orations 8 & 9 (What was Socrates' daimonion?)

    [...] the gods have assigned Vice and Virtue to men as if to contestants in a stadium, the one as the reward for a wicked nature and an evil mind, the other as the prize for a good mind and a strong nature, when it wins through in virtue of its nobility. It is these latter individuals that the divine wishes to stand by and to help in their lives, holding a protecting hand over them and caring for them. One man it preserves by means of prophetic utterances, another by sending flights of birds, another by dreams, another by chance utterances, another by sacrificial portents. Human nature is too feeble to be able to achieve everything by rational calculation, since in this life we are surrounded by a thick, dark mist and live confused by the din and the turmoil of the ills which afflict us here [...]

    8. God himself, settled and immobile, administers the heavens and maintains their ordered hierarchy. But he has a race of secondary immortal beings, the so-called daimones, which have their station in the space between earth and heaven. These daimones are inferior in power to God, but superior to men; they are the gods’ servants and men’s overseers [...]

    The mortal realm would indeed be separated from the immortal and from any sight or dealings with the heavens by a great intervening gulf, were it not for the harmonizing effect of these daimones, who bind and connect human beings to divine beauty in virtue of their kinship with both. Just as, although Greeks and foreigners are separated by their inability to speak each other’s language, they are still connected and enabled to deal with each other by interpreters, who take in what each side says and ferry it over to the other; just so, the race of daimones is held to have dealings both with gods and with men. It is they who speak to men and appear to them, threading their ways through the midst of this realm of mortal nature and giving help in those matters in which men are compelled to appeal to the gods. [...]

    Some heal diseases, some dispense advice to the perplexed, some reveal what is hidden, some assist the craftsman in his work, some the traveller on his journey; some inhabit cities, some the countryside, some the seas, some the dry land. Different daimones are assigned homes in different human bodies: one Socrates, another Plato, another Pythagoras, another Zeno, another Diogenes. (From sections7–8 of Oration 8; tr. Trapp)

    Neoplatonism

    With Neoplatonism the trend to equate Socrates daimonion with a personal daemon, understood as a higher self or part of ones soul that does not descend into the sensory and material realm, continues. Important sources are Plotinus' Enneads 3.4 (On the Tutelary Spirit) and Enneads 4.8 (The Soul's Descent Into Body; esp. 4.8.8), Porphry's Life of Plotinus 10, Hermias (Commentary on the Phaedrus 66–69), Proclus (Commentary on 1 Alcibiades78.7–85,14) and Olympiodorus (On First Alcibiades, Lecture 3). Excellent discussion may be found in Rist (1963), Addey (2014), Finamore (2014) and Roskam (2014).

    Two examples are shown below.

    Hermias, Commentary on the Phaedrus 67

      Men who are good and live virtuously, dedicating their whole life and all their activity and attention (theoria) and conduct to the gods and to the unseen causes, are aware through certain tokens and signs whether the daemon is deterring them from an act or not. And for this reason, when a weasel runs [past], say, or a garment gets caught, or when a stone falls, or something is said, or a thunderbolt is discharged, they are aware of the deterrence and refrain from the action. But the many lead the life of cattle. (tr. Griffin)

    Olympiodorus, On First Alcibiades Lecture 3.21

      Concerning the allotted daimon of Socrates [the commentators] say that three points are important to pick out (exairetos).

      First, that it always used to turn him aside [from a course of action], and that whenever it did not turn him aside, this was a sign of encouragement. That is, since Socrates was beneficent and always eager to help everyone, like a spirited horse eager for the race, he needed the bit rather than the whip.

      Second, that his allotted daimon was divine, and he makes this clear: for he says in the present dialogue that ‘My guardian is better and wiser than yours’ [Plato, 1 Alc. 124C], and when the young man asks, ‘Who is that?’ he replies, ‘A god, Alcibiades, a god.’

      Third, that he seemed to hear the voice [of the god], not because [the god] was actually talking, but [because] a kind of emanation (ellampsis) of [the god] was present in the region of his acoustic organs, and he took this to be a voice. In the same way we observe even now in common usage (sunetheia) that those who live the priestly life, when they suddenly catch the scent of a sweet fragrance, will say (since in their case too an emanation is present in the region of the olfactory organs) that it is ‘the presence of an angel’. (tr. Griffin)


    Bibliography

    Ancient Sources

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    Apuleius. On the God of Socrates. Stephen J. Harrison (tr.). In: Stephen J. Harrison, John L. Hilton, Vincent J.C. Hunink, Apuleius: Rhetorical Works, Oxford University Press, 2001 (repr. 2007); pp. 185−216.

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1st draft, 10 Jan 2019 (rev. Jun 2021)


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